


% Subject: latex-macro-2
                   
%1st updating with effect from: 16 June 1992
 
%2ND UPDATING WITH EFFECT FROM: 14 JUNE 1993
%(changes include use of original commands of latex instead of
%applying amstex/plaintex commands in latex file)
 
%3RD UPDATING WITH EFFECT FROM: 28 JUNE 1993
%(for the purpose of making PlainTex file + Latex file identical)
 
\documentstyle[12pt]{article}
 
%--------------------NEW ADDITIONS TO EXISTING ARTICLE.STY---------------------
\catcode`\@=11
\long\def\@makefntext#1{
\protect\noindent \hbox to 3.2pt {\hskip-.9pt  
$^{{\ninerm\@thefnmark}}$\hfil}#1\hfill}		%CAN BE USED 
 
\def\thefootnote{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
 \def\@makefnmark{\hbox to 0pt{$^{\@thefnmark}$\hss}}  %ORIGINAL 
	
\def\ps@myheadings{\let\@mkboth\@gobbletwo
\def\@oddhead{\hbox{}
\rightmark\hfil\ninerm\thepage}   
\def\@oddfoot{}\def\@evenhead{\ninerm\thepage\hfil
\leftmark\hbox{}}\def\@evenfoot{}
\def\sectionmark##1{}\def\subsectionmark##1{}}
 
%--------------------START OF PROCSLA.STY--------------------------------------
\newcommand{\symbolfootnote}{\renewcommand{\thefootnote}
	{\fnsymbol{footnote}}}
\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
\newcommand{\alphfootnote}
	{\setcounter{footnote}{0}
	 \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\sevenrm\alph{footnote}}}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%NEWLY-DEFINED SECTION COMMANDS 
\newcounter{sectionc}\newcounter{subsectionc}\newcounter{subsubsectionc}
\renewcommand{\section}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}\addtocounter{sectionc}{1} 
\setcounter{subsectionc}{0}\setcounter{subsubsectionc}{0}\noindent 
	{\bf\thesectionc. #1}\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
\renewcommand{\subsection}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}\addtocounter{subsectionc}{1} 
	\setcounter{subsubsectionc}{0}\noindent 
	{\it\thesectionc.\thesubsectionc. #1}\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
\renewcommand{\subsubsection}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}\addtocounter{subsubsectionc}{1}
	\noindent {\rm\thesectionc.\thesubsectionc.\thesubsubsectionc. 
	#1}\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
\newcommand{\nonumsection}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}\noindent{\bf #1}
	\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
					         
%NEW MACRO TO HANDLE APPENDICES
\newcounter{appendixc}
\newcounter{subappendixc}[appendixc]
\newcounter{subsubappendixc}[subappendixc]
\renewcommand{\thesubappendixc}{\Alph{appendixc}.\arabic{subappendixc}}
\renewcommand{\thesubsubappendixc}
	{\Alph{appendixc}.\arabic{subappendixc}.\arabic{subsubappendixc}}
 
\renewcommand{\appendix}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}
        \refstepcounter{appendixc}
        \setcounter{figure}{0}
        \setcounter{table}{0}
        \setcounter{equation}{0}
        \renewcommand{\thefigure}{\Alph{appendixc}.\arabic{figure}}
        \renewcommand{\thetable}{\Alph{appendixc}.\arabic{table}}
        \renewcommand{\theappendixc}{\Alph{appendixc}}
        \renewcommand{\theequation}{\Alph{appendixc}.\arabic{equation}}
%       \noindent{\bf Appendix \theappendixc. #1}\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
        \noindent{\bf Appendix \theappendixc #1}\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
\newcommand{\subappendix}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}
        \refstepcounter{subappendixc}
        \noindent{\bf Appendix \thesubappendixc. #1}\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
\newcommand{\subsubappendix}[1] {\vspace{0.6cm}
        \refstepcounter{subsubappendixc}
        \noindent{\it Appendix \thesubsubappendixc. #1}
	\par\vspace{0.4cm}}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%MARCO FOR ABSTRACT BLOCK
\def\abstracts#1{{
	\centering{\begin{minipage}{30pc}\tenrm\baselineskip=12pt\noindent
	\centerline{\tenrm ABSTRACT}\vspace{0.3cm}
	\parindent=0pt #1
	\end{minipage}}\par}} 
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%NEW MACRO FOR BIBLIOGRAPHY
\newcommand{\bibit}{\it}
\newcommand{\bibbf}{\bf}
\renewenvironment{thebibliography}[1]
	{\begin{list}{\arabic{enumi}.}
	{\usecounter{enumi}\setlength{\parsep}{0pt}
%1.25cm IS STRICTLY FOR PROCSLA.TEX ONLY
\setlength{\leftmargin 1.25cm}{\rightmargin 0pt}
%0.52cm IS FOR NEW DATA FILES
%\setlength{\leftmargin 0.52cm}{\rightmargin 0pt}
	 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt} \settowidth
	{\labelwidth}{#1.}\sloppy}}{\end{list}}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%FOLLOWING THREE COMMANDS ARE FOR `LIST' COMMAND.
\topsep=0in\parsep=0in\itemsep=0in
\parindent=1.5pc
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%LIST ENVIRONMENTS
\newcounter{itemlistc}
\newcounter{romanlistc}
\newcounter{alphlistc}
\newcounter{arabiclistc}
\newenvironment{itemlist}
    	{\setcounter{itemlistc}{0}
	 \begin{list}{$\bullet$}
	{\usecounter{itemlistc}
	 \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}
	 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}}}{\end{list}}
 
\newenvironment{romanlist}
	{\setcounter{romanlistc}{0}
	 \begin{list}{$($\roman{romanlistc}$)$}
	{\usecounter{romanlistc}
	 \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}
	 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}}}{\end{list}}
 
\newenvironment{alphlist}
	{\setcounter{alphlistc}{0}
	 \begin{list}{$($\alph{alphlistc}$)$}
	{\usecounter{alphlistc}
	 \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}
	 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}}}{\end{list}}
 
\newenvironment{arabiclist}
	{\setcounter{arabiclistc}{0}
	 \begin{list}{\arabic{arabiclistc}}
	{\usecounter{arabiclistc}
	 \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}
	 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}}}{\end{list}}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%FIGURE CAPTION
\newcommand{\fcaption}[1]{
        \refstepcounter{figure}
        \setbox\@tempboxa = \hbox{\tenrm Fig.~\thefigure. #1}
        \ifdim \wd\@tempboxa > 6in
           {\begin{center}
        \parbox{6in}{\tenrm\baselineskip=12pt Fig.~\thefigure. #1}
            \end{center}}
        \else
             {\begin{center}
             {\tenrm Fig.~\thefigure. #1}
              \end{center}}
        \fi}
 
%TABLE CAPTION
\newcommand{\tcaption}[1]{
        \refstepcounter{table}
        \setbox\@tempboxa = \hbox{\tenrm Table~\thetable. #1}
        \ifdim \wd\@tempboxa > 6in
           {\begin{center}
        \parbox{6in}{\tenrm\baselineskip=12pt Table~\thetable. #1}
            \end{center}}
        \else
             {\begin{center}
             {\tenrm Table~\thetable. #1}
              \end{center}}
        \fi}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: this portion is from John Hershberger
\def\@citex[#1]#2{\if@filesw\immediate\write\@auxout
	{\string\citation{#2}}\fi
\def\@citea{}\@cite{\@for\@citeb:=#2\do
	{\@citea\def\@citea{,}\@ifundefined
	{b@\@citeb}{{\bf ?}\@warning
	{Citation `\@citeb' on page \thepage \space undefined}}
	{\csname b@\@citeb\endcsname}}}{#1}}
 
\newif\if@cghi
\def\cite{\@cghitrue\@ifnextchar [{\@tempswatrue
	\@citex}{\@tempswafalse\@citex[]}}
\def\citelow{\@cghifalse\@ifnextchar [{\@tempswatrue
	\@citex}{\@tempswafalse\@citex[]}}
\def\@cite#1#2{{$\null^{#1}$\if@tempswa\typeout
	{IJCGA warning: optional citation argument 
	ignored: `#2'} \fi}}
\newcommand{\citeup}{\cite}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%FOR FNSYMBOL FOOTNOTE AND ALPH{FOOTNOTE} 
\def\fnm#1{$^{\mbox{\scriptsize #1}}$}
\def\fnt#1#2{\footnotetext{\kern-.3em
	{$^{\mbox{\sevenrm #1}}$}{#2}}}
 
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\font\twelvebf=cmbx10 scaled\magstep 1
\font\twelverm=cmr10  scaled\magstep 1
\font\twelveit=cmti10 scaled\magstep 1
\font\elevenbfit=cmbxti10 scaled\magstephalf
\font\elevenbf=cmbx10     scaled\magstephalf
\font\elevenrm=cmr10      scaled\magstephalf
\font\elevenit=cmti10     scaled\magstephalf
\font\bfit=cmbxti10
\font\tenbf=cmbx10
\font\tenrm=cmr10
\font\tenit=cmti10
\font\ninebf=cmbx9
\font\ninerm=cmr9
\font\nineit=cmti9
\font\eightbf=cmbx8
\font\eightrm=cmr8
\font\eightit=cmti8
 
%--------------------END OF PROCSLA.STY----------------------------------------
 
%--------------------START OF DATA FILE----------------------------------------
\textwidth 6.0in
\textheight 8.5in
\pagestyle{empty}
\topmargin -0.25truein
\oddsidemargin 0.30truein
\evensidemargin 0.30truein\raggedbottom\parindent=1.5pc
\baselineskip=14pt
 

\begin{document}
\pagestyle{empty}



\centerline{\bf THE BEGINNING OF THE END ?}

\noindent 
Nowadays nobody should be surprised to learn that all matter we see in the
universe is made of atoms. In fact, this is known since 1808 when the
English chemist, Dalton, proposed the modern atomic theory of matter. He
believed that atoms were indivisible and he called them 
{\it atoms} from a Greek word meaning {\it indivisible}. In this way he
honoured the Greek philosopher Democritus who was the first in proposing
the atomic theory over 2500 years ago. Of course, Democritus had no
experimental evidence for his theory, most other philosophers of the
time rejected it, and his idea remained useless for 2000 years.

Since the beginning of the present century the atomic physics showed us
that, as a matter of fact, atoms are not indivisible. By the 1930s
their structure was finally determined. Every atom consists of a small
central nucleus composed of particles called protons and neutrons with
other particles called electrons moving around this nucleus. Once the
question, what are things made of ?, was answered the job of physicists
was apparently finished. However, the new discoveries were in fact the
beginning of a new branch of physics known as {\it particle physics}.
Many work has been carried out to determine whether protons,
neutrons and electrons are the fundamental building blocks of matter
or whether there are other particles that make up them.
The result of this research is that protons and neutrons are not
fundamental, they are built from other particles called quarks.
Therefore, current ideas on the physics of the subatomic world state that
quarks and electrons are the elementary particles that make up atoms.
They are {\it elementary} in the sense that they are so small that nothing
smaller is conceivable.

The task of the particle physics consists not only of discovering and
classifying the elementary particles but also to formulate the laws that
hold them together building up everything: atoms, molecules, ordinary
matter like this piece of paper, living things like us, stars, 
galaxies--the universe itself. Apparently, only four fundamental forces
between particles--strong, weak, electromagnetic and
gravitational--are enough to account for all structures in the universe.
The strong nuclear force holds quarks together, through the exchange of 
new elementary particles called gluons, making up protons and neutrons.
It is also responsible for holding protons and neutrons together inside 
the nucleus. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and the electrons
together, through the exchange of photons, making up atoms. 
The weak nuclear force produces the so called beta decays of the 
nucleus--most radioactive substances used in medicine and technology
are beta radioactive--through the exchange of the intermediate bosons W and
Z. Another new elementary particle called neutrino also participates in the
weak interaction. Finally, gravity holds, for example, the planets to their
orbits around the sun, possibly through the exchange of a postulate
elementary particle called graviton.

In a sense, particle physics began with the speculations of Democritus
but, fortunately, 2500 years later these new theories about the laws
of nature can be tested. In the 1960s huge machines were built to accelerate
particles up to nearly the velocity of light (300000 kilometers per second)
in order to study their properties. Today, the largest particle accelerator
in the world, built by several European countries, is located in
Geneve, Switzerland. A tunnel 27 kilometers in circumference contains an
accelerator in which particles move in opposite directions and collide
at four points where detectors monitor their interactions.
On the other hand, the energy produced in these collisions is enormous, the
same that prevailed when our expanding universe was a tenth of a nanosecond
($10^{-10}$ seconds) old. These experiments as well as other theoretical
discoveries are giving a new understanding of the origin and evolution of
the universe.

At this stage the reader should agree that the unifying power of 
physics is impressive. All phenomena observed in the universe can be
explained with a small bunch of elementary particles and just four
fundamental forces--the messengers of the forces being themselves elementary
particles. Is this the end of the adventure ?. Much progress has been 
made but the task is not finished, many important details remain unsolved.
But the main problem are the physicists themselves. They are too ambitious.
So ambitious that their task will only be finished when the complete
unification of physics is achieved. 
The theory succeed in doing it 
should unify all forces and particles of nature in a common
description. That the task is not simple can easily be understood 
just mentioning that one of the greatest scientist of the history, Einstein,
spent the last 30 years of his life in search of 
a unified theory of gravity and electromagnetism unsuccessfully. 
Since then, other two fundamental forces--strong and weak nuclear--were
discovered, the electromagnetic force has already been shown to be
closely related with them, and several interesting theories have been
proposed to unify all of them including gravity. This is the case of the
so called grand unified theory, supersymmetric theory and supergravity theory.
However, none of them can achieve the goal completely.

In the last years superstring theory--which in a sense contains the
other theories--has emerged as the best candidate to achieve the goal
of unification. In this theory there is only one fundamental object,
the string, and the world is made out of nothing but tiny strings.
Crudely speaking, in the same way that a violin string unifies the
musical tones a fundamental string unifies the various forces and
particles of nature. 
The musical notes are not fundamental, they are originated from the
violin string. The forces and particles are not fundamental, they
are simply the different modes of vibration of a fundamental string.
The beauty and elegance of the superstring theory is remarkable but,
unfortunately, the essence of the theory is not yet well understood.
Many years of research will still be needed before stablishing whether
of not it is the final theory, {\it the theory of everything}.




\end{document}





